The Effects of Sexual Abuse

PSY/265 Version 3
October 21, 2011

     When Bill Clinton spoke to the public in February 1998 and reiterated that he did not have sexual relations with Monica Lewinsky, he was sending a clear message that sexual harassment can and will be tolerated.  Actor and past Governor of California, Arnold Schwarzenegger seamlessly got away with “groping, insulting, and intimidating female workers,” and the number of Catholic Priests involved in the sexual abuse of children is staggering (Rheuban & Gresen, 2011, para. 5).  Because of these and numerous other sexual related issues, it becomes possible to see why the United States is one of the top ten nations for rape and sexual assault (NationMaster.com. 2011).  But who is at risk of sexual abuse?  Although, most sexual abuse cases are perpetrated against women and children, men can also become victims of sexual abuse and assault. 

      The number of rape’s and child sexual abuse cases reported in The United States is on the rise (NationMaster.com., 2011).  “A woman is raped about every 7 minutes on average”, although this may be a low number when you consider many women do not report rape because of the humiliation involved (U.S. Department of Justice, 2003, as restated by Rathus and colleagues, 2005).  Rape can occur in a number of methods: stranger rape, acquaintance rape, date rape, gang rape, marital rape, and rape by women and is motived by anger, power, or sadistic reasons (Rathus et. al., 2005).  Whereas, child sexual abuse tends to follow a pattern of abuse.  Most sexual abuse is perpetrated by a family member, family friend, neighbor, or person of trust (e.g. teacher, priest, or doctor).  Although repeated abuse is typically done so by family members.  

Regardless of the method or reasoning behind sexual abuse the effects can be traumatic and long reaching.  Fear among rape victims is common as most do not believe they were going to live through the rape (Rathus et. al., 2005).  Rape can send an individual into crises as loss of control, shame, and even guilt take hold of the emotional processes.  Statistically these feelings heighten over the next several months then begin to subside (Koss et al., 2002, 2003, as restated by Rathus et. al., 2005).  However, many survivors experience severe and long-lasting effects such as psychological and health related issues.  Depression, substance abuse, and anxiety disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) are common in rape survivors.  Flashbacks of the incident, nightmares, and emotional distancing can persist for decades, although survivors who get support from family and counseling tend to fare better than those who remain alone and blame themselves.   

      Children rarely report sexual abuse themselves; fear of retaliation and blame keep them silent (APA, 2011).  When children are forced or coerces into sexual activities, he or she may go though periods of fear, withdrawal, and acting out.  Child sexual abuse includes more than just penetration, noncontact abuse, such as exposure, voyeurism, and child pornography can be just as devastating to a child as penetrative abuse.  Depression, anxiety, and guilt from sexual abuse “may also cause psychosomatic problems such as stomachaches and headaches” (Rathus et. al., 2005. p. 626).  Sexually abused children are also at greater risk of developing sexual dysfunctions as an adult.  Younger survivors, according to Rathus and colleagues, (2005), of childhood sexual abuse appear to fare better than do children in late adolescence and early adulthood.

     Prevention is the key to avoiding future sexual abuse, but in the meanwhile, only time can heal the wounds of sexual abuse.  Although, without the proper help for both the physical and psychological effects, the emotional damage will continue to resurface, regardless of who inflicted the abuse.  Until all the issues are dealt with the anxiety and depression caused by the assault can reoccur for decades (Rathus et. al., 2005).  Treatment of both physical and psychological symptoms of abuse may provide help from both the short-term and long-term effects such as fear, anxiety, and depression.  Whereas, teaching women and children how to protect themselves and what to look for in child sexual abuse cases is a key step in prevention.  If sexual abuse is suspected do not hesitate to contact someone that can provide assistance such as safe2tell® 877-542-SAFE(7233) or http://safe2tell.org/ or local enforcement agency's.

Resources:

APA (2011). Understanding Child Sexual Abuse: Education, Prevention, and Recovery. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/pubs/info/brochures/sex-abuse.aspx#

srv/politics/special/clinton/stories/deny012798.htm

NationMaster.com (2011). Crime Statistics. Retrieved from http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/cri_rap_percap-crime-rapes-per-capita

Rathus, S.A., Nevid, J.S., and Fichner-Rathus, L. (2005). Human Sexuality in a World of Diversity. (6th ed.). Boston, M.A: Allyn and Bacon. Retrieved from PSY/265 Version 3 Website

Rheuban & Gresen. ( 2011, May 19). Sexual harassment claims resurface in light of Schwarzenegger scandal. Retrieved from http://www.losangelesemploymentlaws.com/2011/05/sexual-harassment-claims-resurface-in-light-of-schwarzenegger-scandal.shtml

The Sperm and the Egg

PSY/265 Version 3
September 04, 2011

     Mommy, how are babies made?  The adventure of human reproduction is one of interest to most people at some point in his or her life.  To answer this question, follow a fascinating journey of Jack and Jill, a sperm and an egg respectively, as they face the exciting, yet challenging obstacles from development to fertilization.  Learn how the male and female sex organs, both external and internal, participate in Jack and Jill’s expedition.  The what, why, and how humans procreate; the biology and psychology behind the tada, it’s a boy (or girl).

     Just by looking, it is not difficult to see that men and women are born with very different body parts, known as secondary sex characteristics.  Developed to entice the opposite sex for the purposes of reproduction, with an internal sex drive that, according to Sigmund Freud (1856 – 1939) is the primary source of human motivation (Freud, as cited by Rathus, et. al, 2005, p. 17).   Upon closer inspection, these external body parts, the male penis and scrotum, and the female vulva and breasts, are very complex; all are extremely sensitive to sexual stimulation.  With stimulation the penis becomes engorged with blood and erection occurs; whereas the female sex organ and its many external parts (i.e. the labia majora and labia minora) hide the erect clitoris.  Both the erect penis and clitoris are motivating factors in the initial journey to fertilization.

     What is not seen are referred to as the internal sex organs; where both the sperm and the egg (Jack and Jill) are developed and nourished with testosterone and estrogen.  According to Rathus, et. al. (2005), Jack and thousands of other sperm are manufactured in the testes.  Jack matures in approximately 72 days and will contain 23 of the 46 chromosomes needed to produce either a girl or a boy (i.e. an X or Y sex chromosome will be within the chromosomal chain of each sperm) at fertilization.  Whereas, Jill and all the ova (egg cells) a woman will ever have remain dormant within the ovaries from birth.  After menarche a woman goes through menses approximately every 28 days as estrogen levels rise; at which time Jill and up to 20 other ova begin to ripen or mature.  As Rathus et. al. (2005) indicates, when estrogen levels peak, normally one ovum, Jill, reaches maturity and is released from the ovary.  As with Jack, Jill contains 23 chromosomes to complete the standard 46 and will always contain a female (X) sex chromosome.  Fertilization occurs when Jack enters Jill to complete the chain of 46 chromosomes to produce either a female or a male embryo.

     When a man and a woman experience sexual stimulation, as mentioned earlier, and wish to experience sexual gratification, the man will insert his erect penis through the vestibule or opening to the woman’s vagina.  With additional stimulation, sperm travel from the testicles through the vas deferens over the bladder and are deposited into the ejaculatory ducts (2005).  There, semen from the seminal vesicles is mixed with the sperm and other nutrients to produce motility.  The ejaculate propels Jack beyond the ejaculatory ducts through the penis into the vagina; at or during this stimulation process sexual gratification, known as orgasm may occur for both the man and woman.  Upon ejaculation, Jack and thousands of other sperm travel beyond the cervix of a woman into the uterus and fallopian tubes, filling the female reproductive system in search of Jill (2005).  Jill, mere inches from the ovary must be fertilized within one to two days after full maturation, continues her journey through the fallopian tube in search of Jack.  Progesterone and estrogen released from the corpus luteum (glands within the ovaries) cause the lining of the uterus to thicken in preparation of fertilization.  As Jack and the other sperm use their scent receptors (much like the nose), they can locate Jill (Wilkinson, 2003, as cited by Rathus, et. al., 2005, p. 118).  Upon reaching one another fertilization may occur; as one they travel to the uterus where the growing embryo implants on the thickened lining and remains throughout development.  

     From the maturation of internal organs to the development of secondary sex characteristics, Jack and Jill are destined to mature and seek out the other.  With internal sex drives, both male and female are biologically stimulated to proliferate; that is to reproduce.  Many mechanisms are required for the creation of sperm and ovum; testes and ovaries house, nurture, and produce the testosterone, estrogen, and progesterone needed for both external and internal organs, sperm, and ovum development.  Chromosomal chains from each sperm and ovum combine to produce a complete fertilized male or female embryo.  The combination of sperm, semen, and other fluids produce an ejaculate that will fill the reproductive system of the woman.  The release of estrogen promotes maturation of several ovum, with one released to fulfill the fertilization process; if fertilization occurs the embryo may implant on the thickened uterus wall and development can occur.  Although Jack, the sperm, and Jill, the egg are produced for procreative purposes, most of the time they are destined to never meet, but when they do beautiful creations are made.

Reference

Rathus, S. A., Nevid, J. S., & Fichner-Rathus, L. (2005). Human sexuality in a world of diversity. (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Ally and Bacon. Retrieved from PSY/265 Version 3 Website

Sexuality at Different Life Stages

PSY/265 Version 3
October 16, 2011

     Although most people just want to do it (that is, have sex), communication is the key to understanding sexuality.  Counseling individuals and couples through sexual difficulties requires an understanding of the issues they face and the stage of life they are in.  For example counseling young people contemplating their sexuality is different from reintroducing older couples or even individuals with disabilities to sexuality.  A therapist must consider many things about sexuality to assist someone with good decision-making processes and to be informative about the physical and psychological changes that occur while taking into consideration the patients feelings and emotions about their own sexuality.  For example Anna, an adolescent girl, Tom and Susan, an elderly couple, and Bill, paralyzed from the waist down; each at a different life stage, and yet sexuality is an influence on them all.

     Adolescent girls, such as Anna may be under a large amount of pressure to engage in intercourse from their peers and significant other, while also receiving messages about their vulnerabilities from parents and caregivers.  Encouraging Anna to consider her decisions about having sex should include discussions on emotional and physical maturity (e.g. feelings about sex and hormonal influences), cultural and spiritual beliefs (e.g. family values, morals, and ethics), and her knowledge about sex, diseases, and birth control (formal education versus miseducation).  Although difficult and possibly awkward Anna should try and keep an open communication process with her mother, which should include discussions about sex, family beliefs, and eventually birth control.  This type of open communication can also provide relief of the mother’s anxiety in not understanding what Anna’s thoughts are.  A therapist’s role in Anna’s situation can be essential in helping her to understand her own thoughts instead of giving in to sexual pressures one way or the other.     

     After building a life together, a routine is commonly developed; children, work, and home-life.  Tom and Susan, past the childrearing stages, have recently retired; Tom three years ago and Susan more recently.  More relaxed and unpressured for time, Susan wants to rekindle their sexual activities while Tom is anxious about ability at his age.  Although most people do not typically think sex and seniors, many older individuals retain their sexuality for a lifetime; interest, and ability (Rathus et. al., 2005).  While there are physical and psychological changes that occur as people age intimacy, love, and a life shared together can far outweigh any changes.  Men, such as Tom may be apprehensive about achieving an erection, the length of time it takes to achieve orgasm, or that he may somehow injury his aging wife.  Visions of the youthful exuberance they once shard may be blocking a renewed outlook on his now matured passions.  As indicated by Rathus and colleagues (2005), “coital frequency is not synonymous with sexual satisfaction” (p. 483).   Barring any health related issues, there are pharmaceutical aids to help with some of the minor physical symptoms associated with aging (e.g. lubrication, erection).  For many aging couples sex can be enjoyable and is a good way to learn new ways to please each other while maintaining intimacy.

     Individuals with disabilities may be unaware of his or her sexuality until confronted with intimate situations.  Reports from Margaret Nosek et. al., (1994) as restated by Rathus et. al., (2005) indicate that many disabled people are kept in a sexless, childlike state because of his or her dependence on others.  Bill, paralyzed from the waist down as a child would like to become intimate with his romantic partner.  His nervous behavior and lack of comfort in talking about sex is normal and could be related to any of Nosek and colleagues five factors: a lack of knowledge about sex, having never been thought of as a sexual person, lack of a positive sexual self-concept, lack of a positive yet productive relationship, never having learned how to cope with sexual barriers (social, environmental, physical, and emotional), and maintaining general and sexual health (Rathus et. al., 2005).  Disabilities come in different forms: physical and psychological.  All require understanding and the ability to learn to overcome the challenges associated with the disability.  Discussing what and how sexual function is capable in a man paralyzed from the waist down will be helpful to Bill; allowing him to understand that men have two erectile centers in the spinal cord: one for psychogenic erections and one for reflexive erections, and that he may still be capable of both with direct stimulation to the penis (Rathus et. al., 2005).  Disability does not mean nonsexual; however, it may require some considerations in position and technique.

     Sexuality can be maintained throughout the different life stages with intimacy, understanding, and communication.  In the adolescent stages, from peer pressure to the fears of parents and caregivers, sexuality involves an understanding of feelings, thoughts, and cultural, moral, and ethical beliefs.  A therapist can help a young person to understand what sexual maturity means.  Sexuality in the elder stages of life can be rewarding and fulfilling when both partners are willing to communicate and understand the normal symptoms of aging.  Anxiety over function can be reduced when a person ceases to compare frequency with function and satisfaction.  However, intimacy, love, and life experience far out way most symptoms of ageing.  Disabled does not mean sexless; even a paralyzed person can have a normal sex life with understanding and knowledge.  A therapist who understands the issues faced by individuals and couples, regardless of the stage of life can provide knowledge, guidance, and understanding leaving people with their sexuality intact.

Reference

Rathus, S. A., Nevid, J. S., & Fichner-Rathus, L. (2005). Human Sexuality in a World of Diversity. (6th ed.). Boston, M.A: Allyn and Bacon. Retrieved from PSY/265 Version 3 Website

Historical and Scientific Perspectives on Homosexuality

PSY/265 Version 3
October 02, 2011

     Is it possible, as Rathus and colleagues (2005) suggest, there is a part time homosexual, heterosexual, and bisexual in everyone, but may not be acted upon or reciprocated?  Perspectives on sexual orientation are not necessarily expressed in sexual behavior but in the direction of one’s romantic interest and erotic attractions (2005).  Although there are many prospectives on homosexuality (e.g. historical, biological, and gender nonconformity), they shape who a person is and how he or she looks at themself and interacts with others.  As for myself; I am no different concerning the perspectives that influenced my sexual orientation.

     Historically speaking, homosexuality has been a part of human sexuality since before the first recordings of ancient Greece.  According to Rathus and colleagues (2005) the “sexual activity depicted on Greek vases,” of older males with young puberty age boys is quite telling (p. 299).  Homosexuality is also documented throughout the Bible.  One of the most famous stories on homosexuality refers to the town of Sodom in the book of Genesis, chapters 10:19 through 19:28; destroyed by God because of its overt sexual deviancy.

     “Evolution, genetics, and hormonal influences” are scientific perspectives that influence sexual orientation (Rathus, et. al., 2005, p. 310). Evolutionary psychologists suggest male-male and female-female partnerships stemmed from reciprocal altruism; creating strong group bonding.  Genetic deviations in sex chromosomes (e.g. X chromosome) have been linked to gay male orientation (Bailey, et. al., 1999 as restated by Rathus, et. al., 2005).  While hormonal influences such as testosterone may affect the intensity of sexual desire, it has not been shown to affect orientation, although researchers are continuing to pursue prenatal hormonal effects (e.g. DES; a synthetic estrogen) as a cause for homosexuality (Meyer-Bahlburg and colleagues, 1995 as restated by Rathus, et. al., 2005).

     With gender nonconformity there is a failure to identify with the anatomical body he or she possesses.  Gay males and lesbians report knowing from childhood he or she is ‘different’ from the other boys and girls; some as early as two or three.  Males avoid physical contact sports such as football and other activities that may cause injury; preferring ‘girl’s toys’ and activities (Dawood et. al., 2000 as restated by Rathus, et. al., 2005, p. 316).  Likewise, lesbians report tomboy behaviors and preferred rough games to girly activities.   

     These and other perspectives about homosexuals have made it difficult for gay males and lesbians to openly identify, not only with themselves but also with friends, coworkers, and loved ones.  The mere term “homosexual” has been associated with deviance and mental illness; this, of course, is not true.  Homosexuality, deemed sinful by the religious communities encouraged this type of thinking, and so throughout the centuries homosexuals have hidden their sexual orientation for fear of persecution (Rathus, et. al., 2005).  Although current attitudes vary from tolerance to encouragement, most gay men and lesbians are condemned for their lifestyle.  Because of these conflicts there is an increased risk of anxiety, depression, and suicide among the homosexual community.  When a gay man or lesbian can finally admit to him or herself that he or she are homosexual he or she may still be unable to share this awakening with others, continuing to live with fear and anxiety.

     As for myself, I have never struggled with my sexual identity.  I was raised in a blended family with four brother’s one sister.  To my mother’s chagrin, I was a tomboy.  I enjoyed rugged outdoor activities; however, I was always aware of my femininity.  My nonconformity had nothing to do with whom I was anatomically.  I never desired to be a boy, only to be equal to them.  I was the caring nurturer in the family; I was always available to care for the animals and younger children.  Although my innocence was taken from me at an early age, when I decided to pursue sexual relations there was never an internal struggle, my choice was clearly that of biological and social norms.  The only difficulty of my sexuality was which birth control to use.

     To acknowledge one’s self-identity whether heterosexual, homosexual, or bisexual it becomes apparent that looking at the perspectives that play a part in whom he or she is as an individual is imperative.  The value of historical awareness can help to identify the pattern of choices currently made, while biological identity (e.g. evolutionary, genetic, and hormonal) may provide specific details regarding sexual orientation.  However, gender nonconformity is the struggle with one’s own anatomical make up and plays an important role in self-identity.  For most people historical and scientific perspectives may appear to be a simple thing; for homosexuals, these perspectives are anything but simple. 

                                                                                             

Reference

Rathus, S. A., Nevid, J. S., & Fichner-Rathus, L. (2005). Human Sexuality in a World of Diversity. (6th ed.). Boston; M.A: Allyn and Bacon. Retrieved from Retrieved from PSY/265 Version 3 Website