Sources of Motivation

PSY/355

February 4, 2013

In the song Like You Were Dying, Tim McGraw (2006) sings of reaching one’s dreams and what it takes to get there; laying it all on the line.  However, the motivation it takes to produce this kind of effort is different for each individual.  This motivation (moving someone into action or changing an action) is achieved through different motives or incentives.  Thus, motivation can be either a push or a pull in the right direction that ignites emotional, physical, and psychological behaviors toward an end result (reaching one’s dreams).  Even though everyone differs on his or her source of motive or incentive, internal and external dispositions either positively or negatively stimulate motivation, and the resulting behaviors.

Internal Dispositions

I. Biological Variables

“The characteristics of the body and brain that motivate behavior” are defined as the state in which the body is in at the moment a choice is presented (Deckers, 2010, p. 8).  For example, to eat or not would depend on how long the body has gone without food, and other hormonal influences (e.g., ghrelin and cortisol) that cause a biological drive or push to eat.  In a healthy individual these hormones are released into the body and brain regulating feelings of hunger or satiation (Northrup, 2011).  Said hormones keep the body in optimal condition.  This is not to indicate that a hungry person would not pass on a meal or satiated person would not eat if offered food that was psychologically motivating.

II. Psychological Variables

“Anxiety and happiness are [both] psychological variables” or motives (Deckers, 2010, p. 8).  The need to belong is a powerful psychological variable; thus, if someone were given a piece of pie from a friend or loved one, even though he or she is full, he or she may decide to eat the pie to satisfy a need to belong.  Sass (2012) found a recent study, which indicates people eat more when he or she is eating with friends than with strangers.  Although this may be a negative influence, it positively affects psychological behavior.  Likewise, a person who has negative self-image issues may become bulimic or anorexic if the behaviors create a positive psychological motive or incentive.

External Dispositions

I. Environmental Variables

Incentives and goals considered of higher value to an individual naturally will be more attractive or repulsive; therefore, “more motivating than those of smaller value” (Deckers, 2010, p. 9).  Thus, if an individual’s environment finds (as in the United States) that a leaner build is more desirable than  a fuller frame, the motivation (pull) will be toward achieving or maintaining a leaner build, even though it may be biologically or psychologically difficult to do so.  However, such environmental motivations may be repel some, causing them to avoid behaviors that encourage weight loss and physical fitness. 

II. Historical Variables

Evolutionary and personal histories, much like biological and psychological motives, rely on the patterns of the past; either evolutionarily (the effects of human history) or personal (lifetime experiences).  Evolutionary history reflects how man has evolved; using hunting skills to find food, avoidant behaviors to survive, and social skills to procreate.  With one’s personal history dictating specific motives and incentives based on experiences from birth to the present time; his or her knowledge, competence, and motivation.  Most individuals tend to avoid painful experiences and seek pleasurable incentives when no obvious psychological or biological motive is present.  For example earning more money is of more value than earning less; thus, someone may seek out a higher paying job that will fall in line with his or her knowledge, competence, and motivation skill set.

Motivation and Behaviors

I. The Relationship between Motivation and Behavior

The sequence of motivation begins with the choices presented in any given situation.  Situations previously indicated with the enticement of a piece of pie; apple, an American favorite.  The choice (to eat or pass) depends on the selection of motive or incentive most satisfying to the individual.  The source of motivation or instrumental behaviors is what will determine whether or not the pie will be eaten.  The duration, frequency, and intensity of motivation comprise instrumental behaviors.  As related to the given situation, has the person offered pie been working a long time on his or her weight (duration)? How diligently has the person been working on reducing or maintaining his or her weight goal (frequency)? And finally, the positive or negative results from his or her efforts and behavior thus far (intensity) will affect the level of motivation to eat the pie or not.    

II. How Behavior Exhibits Motivation

Often a person’s behavior (facial expressions, body gestures, and thought processes) will exhibit his or her level of motivation.  An individual who demonstrates concerted effort, energy, and persistence toward a specific goal or outcome has a higher level of motivation than someone who procrastinates, feels indifferent, or dissatisfied.  “It is a common misconception that… some people are simply motivated to do something and others are not” (Ormrod, 2009, para 15).  For this reason, it is important to surround oneself and express postive emotional energy to increase motivation; intrinsic and extrinsic.  According to Deckers (2010) when people experience specific emotions they ready themselves for action, which is crucial to motivation and emotional fulfillment.  Therefore, if a person has positive emotional behaviors, he or she is likely to decline that piece of pie, thus satisfying the emotional goal.

  Although everyone demonstrates different levels of motivation, his or her behaviors regarding such motives or incentives are either positively or negatively rewarded as he or she move into action.  The biological and psychological variables that combine to push people into action make up the internal dispositions; whereas environmental and historical variables make up the pull of external dispositions.  Sources of motivation and behavior entail the duration, frequency, and intensity of instrumental behaviors.  Therefore, an individual who demonstrates concerted effort, energy, and persistence toward a specific goal or outcome clearly has a high level of motivation.  Many people believe that motivation is a process of tough love, such as conditional rewards; however, emotional encouragement and support can be a more productive source of motivation.

References

Deckers, L. (2010). Motivation: Biological, psychological, and environmental (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

McGraw, T. (Singer, Song Writer). (2006, Dec. 10). Live Like You Were Dying [Audio podcast]. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6xSGLZd9Vg4

Northrup, C. (2011, May 25). Women to Women. Retrieved from http://www.womentowomen.com/healthyweight/hungerhormones.aspx

Ormrod, J. E. (2009). Motivation directs behavior toward particular goals. Retrieved from http://www.education.com/reference/article/motivation-affects-behavior-cognition/?page=4

Sass, C. (2012, May 28). Healthy Eating: 3 Ways To Overcome Social Eating Temptations. Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/05/21/healthy-social-eating_n_1533427.html

Motivation and the Brain: Quitting Smoking

PSY/355

February 18, 2013

Dr. C. Everett Koop, former Surgeon General of the United States once stated that “cigarette smoking is clearly identified as the chief, preventable cause of death in our society” (Reinhold, 1982, para 2).  The addictive properties of nicotine can be felt within the first two days of inhaling a cigarette (n.p., 2007).  With symptoms of addiction (e.g., cravings, irritability, difficulty quitting) seen even in those who smoke only a few cigarettes per month.  Thus, confirming research “that [indicates] nicotine alters the structure and function of the brain” (para. 3).  Although nicotine is known to alter brain structure and function, the extrinsic, and intrinsic factors of nicotine addiction can stem from heredity and environmental factors making it difficult for someone to quit smoking.

Brain Structures and Functions

Using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to view the effects of smoking on brain structures and functions suggest a “reduction in volume and density of frontal gray matter, and cerebral atrophy” (Dodd, Chung, van den Broek, Barrick, Charlton, & Jones, 2012, p. 241).    Furthermore; Dodd, et. al., (2012) indicates mere exposure to cigarette smoke has been “associated with reduced microstructural integrity” (242).  Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) studies reveal decreased molecule motility, resulting in tissue microstructural damage in aging white matter and cardiovascular disease.  Although researchers know little about how alterations of brain structure and function relate to smoking, Dodd, et. al., (2012) suggests the difference in white matter integrity and gray matter activation may account for the cognitive dysfunction (e.g., short-term verbal memory, reasoning, semantic fluency) associated with smoking, which increase with additional respiratory disorders and through increased pack-years of smoking.

Nicotine’s addictive properties affect mesotelencephalic brain sites by exerting dopaminergic actions that impede the determination of how rewarding something is; incentive values (Baker, Brandon, & Chasin, 2004).  This may account for the increased stimulation of the anticipation of smoking but not the smoking itself.

Extrinsic and Intrinsic Factors

The motivations for smoking are many: “physical dependence, ethnicity, impulsivity, affective disorder, and peer influences” are but a few (Baker, Brandon, & Chassin, 2004, p. 464).  Just as plentiful are the reasons to quit smoking; however, understanding the underlying causes of intrinsic and extrinsic motivations can enable someone to change his or her behavior.  Intrinsic behaviors create a positive self-concept, core belief, and enjoyment of an activity (e.g., smoking) and is developed over time with increased exposure.  Intrinsically motived behavior is often shared with friends and family and is associated with heightened excitement and a reduction in stress levels.  Extrinsic motivation is external to oneself, often beginning through small rewards, which gradually increase (e.g., trophies, grades, money, and recognition).  Of course, external rewards (or punishments) used to encourage or dissuade specific behaviors vary from person to person, and culture to culture.  The differences between intrinsic and extrinsic motivations are the reason or reasons for doing something.

 With smoking, the rewards for quitting can be difficult to identify.  For example quitting for health reasons can be both an intrinsic motivator (feeling better) and an extrinsic motivator (reduced illnesses and expense).  However, the level of addiction and behavioral characteristics of an individual may provide additional motivations of their own on the success of quitting smoking or not.  According to Lynskey, et. al., (1998) as restated by Baker, Brandon, & Chassin (2004), adolescence is a vulnerable time for tobacco dependency; those who are “‘uncontrolled’ and impulsive are also more likely to affiliate with substance-using peers” (p. 466).  As smokers age, health concerns increase and social desirability of smoking decrease, stimulating an intrinsic motivation to quit smoking, thus confirming that a new smokers belief in the negative consequences of smoking may not surface until years later.  However, tolerance and dependence create their own negative motivation with discontinuation or reduction of smoking (e.g., “dysphonia, anxiety, inability to concentrate, increased appetite, weight gain, sleep disruption, etc.” (Hughes, et. al., 1991; as restated by Baker, et. al., 2004, p. 471)). 

Heredity and Environmental Factors

Researchers have found that some individuals metabolize nicotine faster than others, which alter the brain’s response to smoking cues; citing nicotine receptor genes (CHRNA5, CHRNA3, and CHRNB4) that affect nicotine dependence and level of smoking.  Thus, exposure  to cigarettes causes nicotine concentration surges creating a desire or need, which motivates smoking; whereas, those with slow metabolizers maintain constant nicotine levels, which aid in attention, memory, and stress relief (Fitzgerald, 2012).  Rattue (2012) references Li-Shiun Chen, M.D., Washington University School of Medicine, who states:

“We found that the effects of smoking cessation medications depend on a person's genes.  If smokers have the risk genes, they don't quit easily on their own and will benefit greatly from the medications.  If smokers don't have the risk genes, they are likely to quit successfully without the help of medications such as nicotine replacement or bupropion" (para. 7).

These findings indicate that even the slightest exposure (e.g., parental smoking) to nicotine can activate the nicotine receptor genes that make smoking a rewarding behavior.  This information can enable scientist to fine-tune nicotine blockers, thereby decreasing these biological traits that increase the desire to smoke.  As with any addiction, changing the environmental cues that engage smoking behaviors is key.  Removing temptations by discarding any smoking related items from the home, vehicle, and work environment (cigarettes, lighters, and ashtrays), and washing clothing and bedding to remove the smells of nicotine.  Furthermore, avoiding others who smoke and smoking environments (e.g., pubs, parties, etc.) are helpful, especially within the first few days.  As indicated in a McGill University (2012) report “Smoking cues, such as the sight of cigarettes or smokers, affect smoking behavior and are linked to relapse and cigarette use” (para. 3).

Finding the motivation to quit smoking can offer many benefits; however, doing so can be a complicated maze of genetic and environmental factors as nicotine enables changes to brain structure and function creating both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation to create smoking behavior.  Thus as researchers identify which genes heighten smoking behaviors, biochemical support will enable individuals to quit smoking with fewer negative effects.  By blocking specific nicotine receptors, altered brain structure and function can be mitigated.  Although finding the motivation to overcome the negative effects of quitting smoking will require intrinsic and extrinsic support.  The human body is amazing; when someone quits smoking, the body begins to heal from the damage nicotine creates, thus the rewards of remaining nicotine free are improved health and improved quality of life lost because of smoking.

References

Baker, T. B., Brandon, T. H., & Chassin, L. (2004). Motivational influences on cigarette smoking. Annual Review of Psychology, 55(na), 463-491. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/205826219?accountid=35812

Dodd, J. W., Chung, A. W., van den Broek, M.D., Barrick, T. R., Charlton, R. A., & Jones, P. W. (2012). Brain structure and function in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: A multimodal cranial magnetic resonance imaging study. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 186(3), 240-5. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/1033332477?accountid=35812

Fitzgerald, K. (2012). Genetics Predict Smoking Addictions. Retrieved from http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/250141.php

McGill University. (2012). How genetics shape our addictions: Genes predict the brain's reaction to smoking. ScienceDaily. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/09/120911125339.htm

Rattue, P. (2012, June 7). Genetics Alter Ability To Quit Smoking.  Medical News Today. Retrieved from http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/246273.php

Reinhold, R. (1982, February 23). Surgeon General Report Broadens List of Cancers Linked to Smoking. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/424292718?accountid=35812

n.p. (2007, July 5). "Just One Dose Of Nicotine Affects Brain Structure And Function - Kids Can Become Addicted Within 2 Days Of First Inhaling From A Cigarette." Medical News Today. Retrieved from http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/releases/75953.php.

 

Research, Statistics, and Psychology

PSY/315 Version 3

November 5, 2012

Psychology is the scientific study of human behaviors, thoughts, and feelings; however, the use of extensive research and statistics can provide a psychologist the ability to examine and report the findings.  Psychology uses several types of scientific research to prove or disprove psychological theories (e.g., observational, correlational, and experimental).  When psychologists are performing research, it is necessary to have a way of measuring the results.  Statistics is that measure; it helps to identify logically the validity of the research methods used.  Therefore, statistics, as much as research, is the backbone to the science of psychology.

Research

Using the scientific research method to acquire and test knowledge is a key process for most research studies today versus the empirical method of obtaining information based on observation only.  Regardless of the method used, it is important that it be a reliable and valid process.  However, to consider a project scientific, it must be objective and follow a specific process; Cowens (2006) provides five basic steps to break down the scientific method.  First a researcher must determine a problem that needs solving, such as why Billy cries whenever his mother leaves the room.  Next a researcher must develop a hypothesis, which, quite frankly, is a researcher’s best guess or prediction of the outcome of the original question (in this instance a hypothesis may be Billy cries because he becomes anxious).  Then, testing the hypothesis can begin; this may be the most important step in the process because some researchers find that his or her original hypothesis is incorrect (e.g., Billy cries because of his mother’s anxiety).

Primary data is obtained directly from a researcher’s observations in an effort to support his or her hypothesis.  However, according to Cowens (2006), checking the results “against known facts” (e.g., Billy’s behavior in other situations) also becomes an important part of the testing process (p. 42).  Furthermore, reading up on any existing work (e.g., separation anxiety in children) can provide a better understanding of the subject; this type of information or secondary data has not been personally observed by the researcher performing the study, but can be very helpful.  It is one thing to have a hypothesis and obtain primary data, but if research has already been completed on the subject, this secondary data may just provide an explanation about why a researcher has surmised his or her hypothesis (e.g., previous work left unanswered, additional questions that will be addressed, etc.).  Of course, documenting primary data at each step of the experiment helps when trying to identify the outcome, leading to the fifth and final step, which is drawing a conclusion.  If the research supports the hypothesis (both primary and secondary data follow the original prediction) there is no need for further explanation; however, if the results differ the researcher will need to identify were the experiment may have gone wrong, requiring a revision of the hypothesis.  Upon reviewing the statistical analysis of the research, anyone should be able to understand clearly the direction of the experiment.

Statistics

The collection, organization, analysis, and interpretation of the data gathered from the psychological research process are accomplished through the use of statistics.  Aron, Aron, and Coups (2009) refer to statistics as “a method of pursuing truth” (para. 3).  Statistics can provide the likeliness that a theory or hypothesis is true or not.  Much like the different methods of research, there are also two methods of statistical analysis: descriptive and inferential.  Descriptive statistics enables psychologists to take a group of numbers from a research study and both summarize and describe the outcome.  With inferential statistics, psychologists can draw conclusions and as the name indicates, make inferences for a larger groups based on the numbers from a smaller sample group.  When psychologists are conducting statistical evaluations, he or she must take into consideration variables (conditions or characteristics with different values), values (number or category), and scores (a particular value on a variable).  From this information statistics can provide psychologists with the ability to put research into easily identifiable measures (or variables), also called “quantitative variables” (Aron, Aron, & Coups, 2009, p. 3).

There are many types of tables and graphs that can be assembled from a simple group of numbers allowing psychologists to identify accurately trends or obtain ratings and ranks.  One such table is a frequency table, which takes a group of scores and identifies how many of the same scores exist.  A grouped frequency table lists the data (numbers) in order of their frequency value and also provides the frequency percentage.  A histogram is “a kind of bar chart” that takes the research numbers from the frequency table and puts them into a graph.  Values are arranged along the bottom of the graph from left to right, lowest to highest.  In addition to that one would arrange the frequencies along the left edge of the graph with the lowest number at the bottom and the highest at the top.  Although there are many formats (e.g., column, line, bar, area) available for graphs and charts, it is imperative that the values and frequency bars or sections used have equal spacing, this provides accurate visual markers for others to review the work performed. 

Sample Statistics Chart

Psychology

As explained by Hasiam and McGarty (2003), “the key goal of psychological research is to understand why mental processes and behavior have particular effects…” (p. 15).  By virtue of explaining such phenomena, the idea is not to continue to uncover more facts, but to explain a specific theory, hypothesis, or assertion.  Therefore, it is important to understand that a theory in psychology serves two purposes; first, to address multiple facts and also to generate predictions (hypotheses) from changing perspectives.  Thus, while psychologists still use “argument, common sense, and logic” he or she relies more heavily on the use of “empirical evidence and its interpretation” (Aron, Aron, & Coups, 2009, p. 13).

To further the knowledge of the human psyche psychology as a science will continue to use research and statistics.  Regardless of the scientific research method used reliable and valid processes allow the field to continue to develop a better understanding of specific aspects of behavior, thoughts, and feelings.  Although without the mathematical ability to collect, organize, analyze, and interpret objectively the data gathered, psychology would still be just a philosophical journey.  However, because psychologists have learned to break down research scientifically to only one hypothesis, the field has advanced considerably.  Although the data remains an important aspect of psychological research, maintaining the human factor is the ultimate goal in psychology.

                                                           

References

Aron, A., Aron, E. N., & Coups, E. (2009). Statistics for psychology (5th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. Retrieved from University of Phoenix PSY/315 Version 3 Website.

Cowens, J. (2006). The Scientific Method. Teaching PreK-8, August/September(na), 42-46.

Hasiam, S. A., & McGarty, G. (2003). Research Methods and Statistics in Psychology. London: SAGE Publications Ltd.