Social Influences on Behavior

PSY/300 Version 3

September 24, 2012

The basic concepts of human interaction are known simply as traits; however, there is nothing simple about behavioral traits.  Psychologists have identified five basic personality traits called the “Big Five”: extroversion, neuroticism, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness (McAdams, 2006, p. 155).  Each of these specific traits has an effect on how people act and interact with one another, although how someone interprets these behaviors depends on the psychological perspective used to explain them.

According to psychologists there are several psychological perspectives upon which human behaviors are analyzed (e.g., cognitive-behavioral, psychodynamic, humanistic, biological, and evolutionary).  This does not mean, however, that any individual perspective is correct and the others wrong.  Each perspective has its strengths and weaknesses and brings with it an alternate view of understanding and thinking about human interactions and behaviors.  

Psychological Perspectives

A cognitive-behavioral perspective views behavior as a product of one’s environmental stimuli and learning principles (Kowalski & Westen, 2011).  Although, one of the oldest schools of thought, the psychodynamic perspective “refers to the understanding of one’s own psychological processes” (p. 578).  With Humanism, however, behaviors stem from how a person consciously views him or herself, his or her relationships, and the world.  While, behavioral, psychodynamic, and humanistic perspectives work with the emotional construct, there are two that have a more organic component, thus meaning the biological and evolutionary perspectives.

Biopsychology (or the biological perspective) is a growing view within the psychological realm.  It suggests that behaviors have a chromosomal, hormonal, and brain function (e.g., gender) influence.  However, the newest perspective is that of the Darwin theory, called the Evolutionary perspective, suggesting that mental processes serve in the evolutionary purpose of survival and reproduction. Again, no one philosophy is more poignant than any other, each provide an alternate way of viewing personality and behaviors. 

Behavioral Perspectives on Drinking

To understand the extent to which a behavior occurs, one must look to a specific perspective to identify why the behavior occurs.  Take someone experiencing pressures to drink, as many people have experienced.  According to White and Jackson (2004/2005), the use of alcohol begins for many people as early as high school with peak use in emergent adulthood (e.g., 19-29).  Therefore, depending on his or her previous consumption and experience with alcohol there may be hesitation or exuberance in this particular situation.  A behaviorist suggests that a persons learned experience with alcohol will decide whether he or she will drink or not.  A psychoanalytic and humanistic perspective, however, indicate self-critical feelings or personal enjoyment with prevail. 

Behavioral Perspectives on Sexuality

Sexuality is based on interest, arousal, and pleasure; however, the process of becoming sexual is daunting for many people.  However, the complexity of human sexual perception includes gender, sexual identity, and the historic picture of sexuality (Jefson, 2005).  Thus, initial views of sexuality differ with each psychological perspective.  A cognitive perspective suggests sexuality is an instinctual drive.  A person just knows the who, what, and how of sex.  From a biological perspective sexuality is a representation of hormonal, biochemical, and cultural influences.  That maturation, brain chemistry, and the sexual practices of cultural norms provide sexuality ques.   Although, the evolutionary perspective suggests sexuality is based on the innate survival needs of a species; therefore, sexuality is for the purpose of procreation.

Precursors and Consequences

Social cognition is “the process by which people make sense of others, themselves, social interactions, and relationships” (Kowalski & Westen, 2011, p. 613).  Thus, each behavior carries with it cognitive precursors and consequences bases on how someone perceives others and him or herself through his or her prejudices, attributions, biases, and attitudes. When someone judges others based on implicit or explicit stereotypes he or she is typically basing such (usually negative) judgments on broader social motivations.  Attributions, or how one views others, generate through social attitudes of consensus, consistency, and distinctiveness.  A bias projects favoritism toward someone and can be either self-serving or correspondant.  Perhaps the most important precursor toward social cognition is that of someone's attitude, which can be cognitive (belief), evaluative (judgment based; good/bad, etc.), and behavioral (desired action). 

Although philosophers have been trying to answer the age old question of which came first, the chicken or the egg, psychologists continue to struggle with the cause and effect of psychological concepts, are human traits the result of cultural (e.g., extroversion or introversion) or biological (e.g., chromosomal, hormonal, or gene-oriented) phenomenon.  Likewise, this same concern can be asked about the phenomenon of drinking, sexuality, and any other human behavior.  Peer pressures for both drinking and sexuality have positive (social facilitation) and negative (conformity) aspects.  Drinking chemically lowers inhibitions, which can cause make someone more social; however, it can also have the opposite affect and cause aggression and withdrawal creating a form of social loafing.  Sexuality creates desire and attraction, which increases self-esteem, but overt sexuality can create self deprecation issues.

Therapeutic Intervention

When behaviors become invasive, causing “clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning” therapy becomes an important healing process (APA DSM-5 Development, 2012. p. 465).  Neuroses, personality disorders, and psychoses are three such classes of psychopathology (Kowalski & Westen, 2011) that require intervention.  Although the Diagnostic and Statistical Manuel of Mental Disorders has made it possible to provide descriptive diagnosis, regardless of psychological perspective, there are times when people without a clinically diagnosed illness or disorder may see treatment, such as those with mild depression or those experiencing relational strife.

 Because of the chemical altering effects of alcohol, excessive intoxication can turn into a substance-related disorder, which impact social, occupational, and relational functioning.  Intoxication is accompanied by blackouts, nausea, vomiting, and other unsocial behavior (e.g., fighting, humiliation, and lack of responsibility).  In contrast, sexual disorders include “sexual dysfunctions and paraphilias (sexual urges, fantasies, or behaviors that involve unusual objects, nonconsenting partners, pain or humiliation…,) and gender identity disorders (such as cross-dressing), that lead to considerable distress or impairment in functioning” (p. 545).  In both cases, behaviors exhibited within social norms would not require intervention, but as with any behavior when distress or impairment are experienced intervention is recommended.

Although each psychological perspective carries with it its own theories and practices, understanding human interaction and behavior has advanced considerably.  With abnormal behaviors, such as addictive drinking, new incite can be attained by reviewing each theories perspective of positive and negative factors.  Explanations of abnormal sexuality, although controversial are explainable through the different perspectives.  Still, people carry with them prejudices, attributions, biases, and attitudes that affect cognition of behaviors.  What causes people to seek therapeutic intervention remains complex; however, when behaviors become intrusive or inhibit social, occupational, or normal functioning it may be the only resource to alleviate distress.  While social influences on behavior remain multifaceted the study of such remains fascinating.

References

APA DSM-5 Development. (2012). Definition of a Mental Disorder. Retrieved from http://www.dsm5.org/ProposedRevision/Pages/proposedrevision.aspx?rid=465

Jefson, C. A. (2005). A Review of The Social Construction of Sexuality. American Journal Of Sexuality Education, 1(1), 183. doi:10.1300/J455v01n01_15

Kowalski, R., & Westen, D. (2011). Psychology (6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Retrieved from University of Phoenix PSY/300 Version 3 Website

McAdams, D. P. (2006). The person: A new introduction to personality psychology (4th ed). Retrieved from PSY/230 Version 3 Website

Vivekananda, S. (n.d.). Phenomenon Quotes. Retrieved from http://www.brainyquote.com/quotes/keywords/phenomenon.html#tDuufGAlSC00V4jJ.99

White, H. R., & Jackson, K. (2004/2005). Social and Psychological Influences on Emerging Adult Drinking Behavior. Alcohol Research & Health, 28(4), 182-190. Retrieved from http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/arh284/182-190.pdf