PSY/310 Version 2
The birth of psychology began with the quest of early philosophers
such as Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle; however, it was not until the
seventeenth century that philosophy broached the realm of scientific study
becoming a form of psychology. Young
philosophers benefiting from the dramatic Renaissance period of the fifteenth
and sixteenth centuries began to question the philosophy of undisputable church
authority. This period, “known as an era
of revolutionary developments in science” spurred not only the superior minds
of Galileo and Sir Isaac Newton but also psychologies most influential founders:
Rene Descartes (1596-1650), David Hartley (1705-1757), Robert Whytt (1714-1766),
David Hume (1711-1776), and Franz Josef Gall (1758-1828) (Goodwin, 2008, p.
32). However, regardless of whose
philosophical view originated the study of psychology, or who exposed
psychology into western tradition, advances in the nineteenth century firmly
secured psychology as a formal scientific discipline.
Historical
Beginnings: Philosophy and Physiology
Early philosophy relied on observation and logic; however, by the
end of the renaissance period philosophers began to examine the
unquestionable. Descartes, more a
scientist than a philosopher was known as a rationalist because of his belief
that reason was the way to truth. Descartes
was also credited with “arguing for a clear separation between mind (or ‘soul’)
and body” (Goodwin, 2008, p. 34). Furthermore,
he worked with optics and physiology in an attempt to uncover conscious and
unconscious reflexes associated with the mind-body question. Hartley, on the other hand was a dualist on
the mind-body theory. A medical practitioner
who argued for an association theory
of how the mind worked; psychophysical parallelism (both mental and physical
work separately yet together). Whytt,
“the leading neurologist of his day” used experimental spinal cord research as
associated with reflexes. His
discoveries suggested that motor nerve function involved sensory input. Hume worked on the basis that “understanding
is rooted in experience,” thus; through experiential association impressions
and ideas form (p. 46). Furthermore, Hume
was the first to suggest the “three laws of association:” resemblance,
contiguity, and cause and effect (p. 47).
Finally, the breakthrough psychology needed came from research on the
brain itself. Gall, a physician and
comparative anatomist proposed a theory of localization of brain function
called phrenology. Additionally, his
discoveries of the fibers that connect the two hemispheres of the brain confirm
contralateral function. However, it was
not until Galls associate (Spurzheim) brought phrenology to America that it
reached its most significant contribution.
Western
Contributions to Psychology
Although western psychology has imperialist influences, the
contributions of such research as phrenology aided the American belief that anyone
can be successful in life and opened the gateway to future neurological
research. John Locke (1632-1704) was an
Oxford philosopher enthralled by the physical sciences of the seventeenth
century (Goodwin, 2008). Extending his
studies to epistemology, he later wrote An
Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) that provided him with
notoriety throughout the field of psychology.
One of Locke’s most influential ponderings was that the mind is a blank
page, therefore experience creates knowledge and thus the majority of those experiences
are sensations. Furthermore, “defective
senses… [can] produce a distorted view of the world” (p. 41). Another influential philosopher whose
contributions to western psychology had a significant impact was George Berkley
(1685-1753). Emigrating to America from
Ireland, Berkley produced two books focusing on the analysis of sensory
processes: “An Essay Towards a New Theory
of Vision (1709) and Treatise
Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge (1710)” (Goodwin, 2008, p.
43). His suggestions about optics and
perception are still relevant, more than three centuries later. As indicated by Daniel Robinson and restated
by Goodwin (2008) “Berkeley ‘rendered epistemology a branch of psychology, and
the two have never been divorced since’” (p. 45).
Science
of Psychology into the Nineteenth Century
Experimental research through physiology and mathematical
contributions made psychology a formal science in the nineteenth century
through the works of such scientists as William Wundt (1832-1920), William
James (1842-1910), and Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) to name but a few. Wundt, known as the “father of experimental
psychology” was the founder of the first experimental laboratory, thus marking
the distinction between psychology as a philosophy or a physiology to that of a
science (Kim, 2008, para 1). Furthermore,
Wundt is also the founder of the structuralism perspective of psychology, which
believes conscious experiences are the thoughts, feelings, and emotions that
people express. James, called the father
of American psychology introduced one of the most influential psychology books;
The Principles of Psychology (1890). His descriptions of human experience,
behavior, and nature produced extensive insight into “the phenomena of
psychopathology and exceptional mental states” (Wozniak, 1999, para 2). James is also credited with beginning the
functionalist perspective, which emphasizes the adaptiveness of mental and
behavioral processes. Following in his
footsteps, Freud proposed a psychoanalytical perspective of treating
psychopathological patients. Trained as
a neurologist, Freud found inspiration in Darwin’s evolutionary perspective,
thus relating all psychological difficulties back to a psychosexual basis (a
basic human drive). Working with
hysteria (mostly in women) his speculations that associated symptoms stem from
extreme sexual frustration created much controversy. Freud eventually introduced his theories of
id, ego, and superego as the unconscious desires to fulfill basic human
needs. Although Freud’s theories remain
controversial, they earned him the classification of the father of
psychoanalysis and opened the door for future theories and practices (e.g.,
clinical, neurological, and behavioral) within the psychological realm.
As stated, each philosophical view, including that of western
philosophers have provided significant advances toward the nineteenth century
introduction of psychology as a formal scientific discipline. Whether it is the
empirical challenges of mind-body issues that presented itself in the early
days of physiology or the philosophical questions of how the mind works physiological
research and study prevail. Some of
these philosophical and physiological theories have been carried over many
continents to further advance their scientific growth, such as that of Locke
and Berkeley’s study of epistemology in America. Of which, both helped to create this new
scientific perspective of the nineteenth century. Even though experimental research produced
the formal discipline known as scientific psychology its growth continues even
in modern times. However, as psychology moves
to a more cognitive study there is yet to be even more growth within the
discipline.
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