March 03, 2014
Man has been tested since the beginning of time in the form
of trials and tribulations. For it is
written in the Bible (1985) that man is to take joy in his (or her) daily
trials (James 1:2) and find understanding in his refinement through affliction
(Isaiah 48:10). Thus, man is no stranger
to the measures and concepts of testing; however, the introduction to
psychological tests has brought about a whole new measure to one’s “…personality
characteristics, intelligence, and cognitive (e.g., thinking, attention,
memory) characteristics” (Dombeck, 2006, para. 1). Therefore, defining what a test is and its
major categories can also aid in defining a tests usefulness, validity and
reliability, and who might use such tests and for what purpose.
Defining the Term “Test”
According to Hogan (2007), finding a definition for the term
“test” or “testing” is not as easy as just declaring it “…the process or an
instance of testing the academic, mental, physiological, or other qualities and
conditions of a human subject” as defined in the Oxford English Dictionary in
volume 17 page 826 (p. 38). One must
take into consideration all that a test encompasses; the procedures that go
into collecting the information, the information itself, the behaviors and
cognitive processes it measures, which standardizing method is used, and
whether it is quantified or not. Meyer,
Finn, Eyde, Kay, Moreland, Dies, Eisman, Kubiszyn, and Reed (2001), indicate
that psychological testing and assessments cover a wider range of functional
domains (e.g., “…personality, cognitive, or neuropsychological
characteristics…”) than do the less formal evaluative procedures like the
clinical interview (p. 144). Thus, it
may be beneficial to define the psychological test more of a “standardized
process or device,” as Hogan (2007) describes, “that yields information about a
sample of behavior or cognitive processes in a quantified manner” (p. 41).
Major Categories of
Tests
In dealing with the science of the mind and behavior,
psychologists have come up with five major categories of psychological tests:
mental ability; achievement; personality; interests and attitudes; and neuropsychological
tests (Hogan, 2007). However,
understanding which category a subject should be tested under is determined by
the unique set of circumstances presented by the patient (Meyer, et. al.,
2001). A mental ability test includes a
variety of cognitive function evaluations (e.g., memory, spatial visualization,
and creative thinking). Such tests as
the WAIS and the SBIS are typical intelligence type testing processes (Hogan,
2007). Achievement tests “attempt to
assess a person’s level of knowledge or skill…” (p. 6). Two such testing devices include the SATs and
the GREs. Tests that yield information
about the human personality help establish such markers as depression (BDI),
eating disorders (EDI), and other personality traits (MMPI). Vocational interests and attitude
measurements are typically done in high school and college by utilizing SII and
KCS tests but can also be done beyond these ranges to identify attitudes on
other life subjects (e.g., capital punishment, immigration, and gun control) (Hogan,
2007). Finally, neuropsychological
testing helps “to yield information about the functioning of the central
nervous system, especially the brain” (Hogan, 2007, p. 8).
Concepts of
Reliability and Validity
Reliability refers
to the consistency of an assessment; regardless of whether or not a test is
valid it must always be reliable (Hogan, 2007).
There are several meanings for the word reliable, the everyday meaning
(e.g., the library is a reliable source for books); and in a quantitative sense;
as applied to psychological tests it means that the information or scores it
yields is consistently replicated.
Research conducted by Ögel, Karadayi, Senyuva, and Kanoglu (2012)
reveals that psychological screening tests for adolescence (PSTA) is a reliable
and valid tool for screening juveniles for psychological conditions prior to
admission to penal institutions with “…a high level of positive correlation
between [youth self-report] YSR and PSTA total score (r=0.60)” (para. 1). Reliability also means noting the distinction
between real changes and temporary ones that might affect assessment results
(e.g., the facilitator, the form of the exam, etc.), thus eliminating errors.
Validity means
that an assessment measures what it purports to measure with some type of
content, criterion-related, or construct evidence (Hogan, 2007). With validity, there is no such thing as
all-or-nothing, Hogan (2007) states that “validity is a matter of degree” (p. 157).
Validity also distinguishes between valid and accurate. Ögel, et. al., (2012) found that a 50.35%
variance in the PSTA structural (construct) validity was because of an
inaccuracy in factors not because the tests were invalid. Here it is possible to see how a test might
be deemed reliable but invalid or inaccurate.
Major Uses and Users
Tests; personality, intellectual, achievement, mental
ability, interest, and attitudes, neuropsychological, and so many others; tests
are used for a multitude of purposes. Camara,
Nathan, and Puente (2000), indicate the majority of early researchers used
referrals “for complete assessment, personality assessment, or intellectual
assessment[s],” with more recent requests by clinical psychologists involving
“…personality-psychopathology (93%) and intellectual-achievement (88%),
followed by neuropsychological assessment (47%)” (p. 145). While each user (e.g., clinical, educational,
personnel, or researcher) has his or her own setting and mix of assessment
preference, there is no single test that blankets all fields. A school psychologist, for example, may
require the use of various achievement tests rather than the interpersonal
skills test that a human resource director uses, or the neuropsychological
assessment that the neuropsychologist needs.
Although, each profession has a specific need, each is equally dependent
on the use of the different psychological assessments.
Conclusion
The processes or devices that are used to measure behavioral
or cognitive processes provide the most efficient way to supply specific information
about someone. In trying to standardize
these processes, the five major categories help to establish some semblance of
functional direction. In that, order can
be established with empirical reliability and validity which enable the various
users to find functional uses to explore the psychological world.
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