B. F. Skinner is a noted behaviorist whose ideas on behavior
and learning were best understood by looking at one’s actions and thereby its
consequences. Skinner explains that "[t]he
strengthening of behavior which results from reinforcement is appropriately
called 'conditioning'. In operant
conditioning we 'strengthen' an operant in the sense of making a response more
probable or, in actual fact, more frequent" (Skinner, 1953, p. 65). There are two ways in which operant
conditioning ensures this probability; through a selected schedule of positive
or negative reinforcement or through a form of punishment.
Reinforcement
Strengthening an operant can be accomplished through
positive or negative reinforcement.
Positive reinforcement encourages the probability of a desired behavior
by providing a reward, such as food to a hungry rat for pressing a lever (as
seen in Skinners research) or a night out with friends for cleaning his or her
room for a teenager who values his social standing. A negative reinforcement, on the-other-hand,
removes an unpleasant stimulus or reinforcer, which can also strengthen a
desired behavior. Skinner demonstrated
this by having his subjects press a lever to terminate an electrical shock
(Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009). Another
example of negative reinforcement introduces the removal of a negative stimulus
to encourage appropriate behavior for a teen, thus if he or she clears the
table they will avoid continued grounding.
So both positive and negative reinforcement works to encourage specific
behaviors; whereas, punishment tends to weaken behaviors. At times negative reinforcement and
punishment can be difficult to distinguish but punishment introduces unpleasant
stimuli and removes rewarding stimuli for undesirable behaviors, versus the
removal of unpleasant stimuli as mentioned earlier for negative reinforcement.
Effectiveness
Although it has been
demonstrated that both forms of operant conditioning are effective, in-so-much
as they may temporarily alter behaviors, identifying the extinction rate can
suggest which method is more effective. Thus,
a change in the operant level of response (shaping) can be accomplished through
a varied reinforcement schedule; variable ratio (VR). As indicated, the term “reinforcement” itself
is to strengthen a behavior and thus would provide a deeper operant level
(reinforcement, n.d.). Of the two
reinforcement processes (positive and negative), research has identified that
positive reinforcement is less likely to result in extinction; thereby making
it the most effective method (Psychology 101, 2011).
Operant Reinforcement
Scheduling
Appling what has
been learned from operant conditioning, one could use taking the trash out and
replacing the can liner as a scenario. For
example, getting my spouse not only to take out the trash but replace the liner
in the can has been an issue. So the
goal is to increase the desired behavior of him not only taking out the trash
but also replacing the can liner. In
operant conditioning, by using words of praise whenever he completes the entire
task his behavior should increase as the postive reinforcement is given. Once the behavior (taking out the trash and replacing the liner) and the reward
(praise) have been identified a schedule of reinforcement can be applied. There are several forms of reinforcement
schedules (e.g., continuous, fixed interval, fixed ratio, variable interval,
etc.); however, as mentioned earlier researchers have identified a variable
ratio reinforcement schedule as the least resistant to extinction (Olson &
Hergenhahn, 2009). By initially praising
my husband for completing the task on a continual basis may prove beneficial to
secure the behavior but would be impracticable in the long run; however, once the
behavior is established switching to praise at unpredictable completions (VR)
(e.g., once or twice a week, or every other week) should create a steady rate
of desired response, according to Skinners theory.
The patterns in which operant conditioning are strengthened
defines the success or extinction of a specific behavior. Reinforcement techniques work to establish
desired behaviors, regardless of whether it is positive or negative
reinforcement. However, researchers have
identified that positive reinforcement tends to be the most effective method to
avoid the possibilities of extinction.
Through a simple scenario of replacing a liner in a trash can it is
possible to encourage positively desired behavior. Selecting a reinforcement schedule that fits
the operant condition allows behavior modification to take place, whether it is
temporary or an operant level baseline change.
Regardless, operant conditioning is one of behavioral psychologies
fundamental concepts of learning and cognition.
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