Rita Mae
Brown, playwright, once stated “Language is the road map of a
culture. It tells you where its people
come from and where they are going” (Dold, 2011, para. 12). This suggests that language is a
representation of peoples past, present, and future. As such, language is essential to each person
so that he or she may communicate this representation to others. For this reason there are specific rules
(i.e., grammar) that characterize language; however, these rules vary across
languages and define understanding. Defining
language must be done by explaining the nuances and the key features in each of
the four levels of language that challenge cognitive processing.
Language and lexicon
Language, “a stream of words, their pronunciation, and the
methods of combining them” is the process that humans use to communicate
(Language, 2013, para. 1a). Thus, allowing
them to express thoughts and feelings through speech or symbols; however, the lexicon
of a language is the vocabulary or the collection of words of that particular
language (e.g., Greek lexicon, Latin lexicon, Hebrew lexicon, etc.). There are also certain professions (e.g.,
computer programming, medical providers) and epic films (e.g., Harry Potter or
Star Trek) that poses their own lexicon (i.e., directory of words). Although different cultures may have their
own language (e.g., Spanish, English, French, etc.), understanding the specific
lexicon of that language makes it possible to understand and communicate in
that language (profession, or realm).
The four levels of
language structure and processing
Regardless of which culture one comes from, language has
four distinct levels and processing: phonemes, words, sentences, and texts. Furthermore, “each level is characterized by
rules” (Willingham, 2007, p. 416):
Phonemes – In the first phase of language, infants or new
learners communicate through the use of phonemes; a series or small set of
units known as speech sounds (e.g., the coo’s and babbling of infants) that
eventually are used to form words. However,
labial phonemic representations (e.g., the b
and p in the bit and pit) and
phonetic representations (e.g., the p
in spun and the p in pun) are
produced differently in different situations (Phonemes, n.d.). Although categorically people do not hear
these slight differences.
Words – With practice the phonemic coo’s and babbles eventually
become coherent words, which are powerful on their own because of the meaning
that each word holds. Without words, as
in the animal kingdom, there would be no language. Word recognition, however, is not based on
meaning but on “pronunciation, spelling, and part of speech” (Willingham, 2007,
p. 453).
Sentences - When a string of individual words are combined,
they become sentences. Although more
than just a string of words, sentences help to express thoughts and feelings
when speaking or writing. Although a
sentence may not be grammatically correct, understanding can still be attained
by searching long-term memory for recognition. Furthermore, researchers reflect that syntax
(i.e., structure) and semantics (i.e., meaning) have been found to play
intricate roles in how sentences are parsed.
Text - More complex yet is how many sentences form a text. There are three levels to a text: the surface
code (wording), a textbase (propositions), and a situation model (integration
of knowledge). Depending on the proposition
and surface code used to form these texts, suggests the levels of complexity and
meaning, which can be copious.
Evaluating the key
features of language
As previously mentioned language is an expression of
thoughts and feelings, therefore it has specific properties that clarify its
critical processes. In order for a
people to express thoughts and feelings, a language must be communicative, thus allowing individuals
to relay information in such a way that it can be understood by others. Another feature of language is that it is arbitrary. By this, the meaning of a sound or symbol is
not absolute; for example, the word ‘box’ in English has no meaning in Spanish,
but the word ‘caja’(container) roughly translates to the same meaning. Willingham (2007) indicates that
“[a]rbitrariness is a key feature of symbols” (p. 411). However, there is specific structure to language. This structure is vital to understanding, for
example whether issuing a statement, ‘it is raining outside’ or asking a
question ‘is it raining outside?’ depends on the way the words are structured.
Language is also generative. Each of the approximately 600,000 words in
the English language can be added to another providing limitless meaning
(Willingham, 2007). Noam Chomsky, as
restated by Willingham (2007), indicated that “a distinctive property of
language is that we almost never say the same thing twice” (p. 412). Because of this, language is dynamic and ever changing. Regardless of the language, as the rules of
grammar change, new languages are formed and old languages die out, thus
affecting how someone understands and process the dynamics of that
language.
Language processing
in cognitive psychology
Exploring cognitive psychology reveals that learning
encompasses the mental processes of perception, attention, thought, language,
and memory. However, of these processes,
language is the anchor in which humans acquire the majority of his or her
information in order to communicate his or her thoughts and feelings to the
world. Cognitive psychology suggests
that the mind works logically; like a computer.
It takes in expressed or implied information and processes it through
thought (Psychology Today, n.d.). Without
the proper lexicon of a language that communication is hindered. Furthermore, the structure and grammar in
which people use to express themselves builds a representation that helps
others comprehend the dynamics of his or her intent and meaning. Although as a generative form of
communication, subtle changes in words or structure change the way the
representation is expressed and perceived.
The more developed the language skills, the better that
representation will be expressed and understood. Because memory is a reconstruction of storied
representations, language affects the way in which memory is stored, retrieved,
and utilized. Although there are many
things that affect how someone thinks, what and how something is said is only one
of them (Sapir, 1956 as restated by Willingham, 2007). Therefore, it is thought that cultural
differences can and do affect word meaning within each language. The Whorfian hypothesis suggests that “the
difference may be one of convenience” and that different cultures “favor”
specific thought processes over others (Willingham, 2007, p. 434). An example of this can be seen in the grammatical
gender systems of language; whereas, English has gender codes for only a few
nouns and pronouns (e.g., girl, boy, he, she), other languages (e.g., Spanish,
German, Arabic, Hebrew) assign masculine, feminine, and in some instances a
neuter gender roles to their words and sentence structure.
Although language is designed to express and communicate specific
thoughts and feelings, the underlying processes that make language
understandable depend on the level of expression and understanding. While one may not fully understand the
phonemes as expressed, both visual and auditory cognitive processes help in the
perception of this information. However,
categorical perception allows people to hear phonemes correctly, even when
there are slight differences, such as the differences in the pronunciation of p and b (Willingham, 2007). Regardless
of this ambiguity, phonemes are an important key to forming subsequent
words. These words, although arbitrary,
are assigned symbolic meaning associated with one’s culture and when combined
in a specific structure have the power to express a multitude of thoughts and
feelings. Word recognition, according to
Willingham (2007), is thought to be a process of a memory representation from
the lexicon based on “pronunciation, spelling, and part of speech” (p.
453). Combining words into a sentence is
accomplished by combining both syntax and semantics. Although, even sentences not grammatically
correct may still be understandable as cognitive processing searches long-term
memory for recognition. A text, however,
can convey an enormous amount of representations for more in-depth
communication of time and space. Because
of the generative nature of language there can be many representations or
expressions used for the same situation, making language extremely dynamic. As new words are introduced and the lexicon
of a language changes so does the way it is perceived. The Whorfian hypothesis suggests many reasons
for this; convenience and specific thought processes are but two. The cognitive processes that allow such language
changes to take place are part of the thought process involved in language
development and understanding. However,
as stated earlier, the more developed the language skills, the better that
representation will be expressed and understood. As a basic need for most humans, language is
the one skill set that everyone wants to acquire, and then, as history reflects
they promptly change it.
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