The most studied concept in psychology is that of how humans
acquire knowledge; learning and cognition.
From the earliest recordings of Plato and Aristotle man has grappled with
the nature of knowledge. However, it was
not until the sixteenth century that philosophy took a decisive turn when Rene’
Descartes (1596-1650) argued for the separation between mind and body, thus
giving credence to the minds ability to direct the actions and behavior of the
body (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009).
Furthermore, the cognitive processes that enable learning play an
intricate role in what and how people acquire knowledge.
Definition of
Learning
Throughout history the definition of learning has
transformed from a philosophical thought process to the “comprehension,
knowledge, or understanding that is gained from experience” (Olson &
Hergenhahn, 2009, p. 1). While still
valid, the most popular definition is that of Gregory A. Kimble
(1917-2006). He suggests, according to
Olson and Hergenhahn (2009) that “learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior
or in behavioral potentiality that results from experience…” (p. 6). This definition leaves the type of experience
open for interpretation, however.
Behavioral Role of
Learning
A behavior is the reaction or response as a
result of environmental and psychological stimuli, but according to theorists
that does not mean that specific behavior was learned (Olson & Hergenhahn,
2009). However, the intervening
variables (experiences) that take place in order for someone to learn are vast
and have the capability of causing a relatively permanent change in behavior;
thus it can be said that learning takes place.
The difficulty lies in identifying these variables, thus theorists use
behavioral changes to record the different kinds of experiences that stimulate contiguity
between stimulus and response. Most
innate behaviors (e.g., laughing, crying, and defensiveness) are not acquired
through the learning process; however, there are different kinds of
conditioning that does stimulate identifiable learning.
Types of Learning:
Conditioning
Through scientific research, theorists
have found that changes in behavior (learning) are derived from
experience. There are two forms of
conditioning that exemplify behavioral modification; they are instrumental and
classical conditioning. Classical conditioning
can best be explained through Ivan Pavlov’s research; whereby he took an
unconditioned stimulus (US), associated it with a controlled stimulus (CS),
turning an uncontrolled response (UR) into a conditioned response (CR) (Olson
& Hergenhahn, 2009). One such
example of classical conditioning can be demonstrated as a result of someone
becoming ill after eating tainted food.
A visit to the same eatery can induce the same symptoms of the previous
illness (e.g., nausea and vomiting) even though no additional foods have been
ingested.
With instrumental or more commonly called operant conditioning,
reinforcement of an existing behavior is “instrumental” to a desired
behavior. B. F. Skinner (1904-1990) is
well known for his operant conditioning methods; whereby he takes “a Plexiglas
cage with a metal-grid floor and food lever” to reinforce a lever pressing
action for the caged rat to receive food
(Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009, p. 8). His experiments also reinforce escape and
avoidance behaviors when paired with an electrical shock. In this example, subjects receive their
reward by modifying their behavior to terminate or avoid the shock stimulus. Although there are other methods that produce
learning, “many theorists believe that complex behavior ultimately can be
understood in terms of classical or instrumental conditioning” (p. 8).
The Relationship
between Learning and Cognition
Only through the observation of behavior can
theorists continue to identify the relationship between learning and
cognition. According to Olson and
Hergenhahn (2009) naturalistic observation is only a first step to the study of
learning; eventually a systematic approach must be taken. Therefore, the study of learning from different paradigms is essential to identifying the
relationship between learning and cognition.
Through associationism (from the laws of association by Aristotle),
“because a child hears ‘dog’, sees the dog, and feels the dog at the same time,
these sensations come together as the idea of a dog” (Olson & Hergenhahn,
2009, p. 31). With additional cognitive
experiences that same child will begin to expand on his or her mindset of dog
to other animals with similar identifiable traits (e.g., four legs, fur, and a
tail). However, certain aspects of this
theory also lay within other paradigms.
As can be seen,
cognition is the mental processes that enable learning, while intervening
variables are what change behavior, and stimulate learning. Although these variables or experiences are
many, the two most frequently cited are classical and instrumental
conditioning, which many theorists claim explain the majority of how all learning
takes place. However, the more one
understands about learning and cognition, the greater will be the understanding
of not only “normal and adaptive behavior but also… [that of] maladaptive and
abnormal behavior” (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009, pp. 9-10).
